1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to methods for rectifying or ameliorating abnormal responses of the mammalian immune system, and modifying normal responses of the mammalian immune system. More particularly, this invention relates to methods employing the alteration of prolactin rhythms as a method of adjusting mammalian immune response.
2. Prolactin and Immunity
The importance of neuroendocrine regulation of immunity has become increasingly evident during the past decade (Besedovsky, H. O. et al., J. Immunol. 135:750s-754s, 1985; Blalock, J. E., Physiol. Rev. 69:1-54, 1989; Berozi, I., Dev. Comp. Immunol. 13:329-341, 1989). Much of this interest has focused on the anterior pituitary hormone prolactin, which has been reported to have potent, albeit inconsistent and often conflicting, effects on immune activity (Gala, R. R., Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 198:5-13, 1991; Nicoletti, J. et al., Reprod. Immunol. 15:113-121, 1989; Vidaller, A., et al., Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 38:337-343, 1986; Gerli, R. et al., Clin. Immunol. 7:463-470, 1987).
The role of prolactin in immunity is exemplified by studies demonstrating exogenous prolactin-induced restoration of immune competence in hypophysectomized mammals (Gala, R. R., Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 198:5-13, 1991; Bercal, I. et al., Acta Endocrinol. 98:506-513, 1981). In intact animals, prolactin administration has been associated with numerous immunological effects including stimulation of cellular or antibody responses, as well as stimulation of various immune system upregulating substances such as IL-2 (both IL-2 production and IL-2 receptor expression); enhancement of lymphocyte number, activity and mitogenic responses; and augmentation of macrophage cytotoxicity (Gala, R. R., Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 198:5-13, 1991; Bernton, E. W. et al., Science 239:401-404, 1988; Rovensky, J. et al., Int. J. Immuno. Pharmac. 13:267, 1991.)
Other lines of evidence reveal an association between hyperprolactinemia (i.e. elevated levels of circulating endogenous prolactin) which is due to natural, pathological, pharmaceutical, or stress conditions, and states of immune dysfunction, such as immunosuppression or autoimmune diseases. The autoimmune diseases for which exacerbative associations with prolactin have been observed in the past include rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and multiple sclerosis. Nicoletti, J. et al., Reprod. Immunol. 15:113-121, 1989; Vidaller, A., et al., Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 38:337-343; 1986; Gerli, R. et al., Clin. Immunol. 7:463-470, 1987; McMurray, R. et al., J. Immunol. 147:3780, 1991.
In light of these apparently conflicting results, (increased prolactin level-associated augmentation of allo-immune response, exacerbated auto-immune response, and immunosuppression) the effects of elevated blood prolactin levels on the immune system have been far from clear.
In recent years, research has focused on improving the ability of the immune system to combat various diseases including malignancies. Experimental evidence that major histocompatibility antigens have an important role in host defenses against the development and spread of tumors has been rapidly accumulating.
Another line of research has specifically focused on suppression of autoimmune diseases, which are characterized by the inability of the immune system to recognize self tissue as "self" and by the mounting of an immune response against self tissue as though it were a foreign antigenic substance.
Yet another area of intensive immunological research is focused on various immunodeficiencies including AIDS. Despite intense research however, progress is slow and the immune mechanisms involved are proving elusive.
Numerous potential immunomodulatory agents are under current investigation by third parties for clinical usefulness. These agents include biologically derived compounds such as interferons and interleukins (and synthetic compounds such as isoprinosine and pyrimidinones). Although interferons and other cytokines and lymphokines are naturally occurring substances, their clinical use (which has involved administration by injection) has not been consistently beneficial (and/or the favorable results have been short-lived). Furthermore, cytokine and lymphokine therapies are most often accompanied by severe side effects such as toxicity and fever.
Accordingly, there is a need in the field of immunology for agents which modify pathological immune system responsiveness and regulate the endogenous production of substances which are in turn native immune system regulators. Use of such agents to "reprogram" the immune system: (i) would improve host resistance to infection and ability to combat existing infections; (ii) overcome immunosuppression, abate immunodeficiency, and improve immunity against tumors and restore normal immune function; and (iii) prevent or suppress autoimmunity and restore normal immune function.